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Pioneer HandcartsCopyright 1989 by Stephen Pratt
3rd Printing
1996 Art by Monica Brian
All rights reserved
Pratt Wagon
Works
Cove Fort, UT, 84713
1856-1860 The
cart pictured is a meticulous reproduction of the cart described by
Brigham Young in his letter of September, 1855. The spokes were made by
the hand carving of many different young guests who attended the Castle
Valley Pageant near Castledale, Utah during the summer of 1990. Following
one of Brigham Young's options, the cart is constructed without "a
particle of iron." This cart was loaded and pulled several miles to test
and age it. It served very well on the short journey. In 1993, this
replica handcart was purchased by the LDS church and placed on display in
the newly remodeled and rededicated Joseph Smith Memorial Building
(formerly the Hotel Utah) across the street from Temple Square in Salt
Lake City, Utah.
PART I: ECONOMY MODEL OF 1856About three years ago my teenage
sons and I were invited to build eighteen handcart wheels and nine axles
for use in Utah pioneer parades. The question was asked, what did they
look like? Did they simply use carriage or light wagon wheels? had the
"Sarven Hub" been invented with its two steel flanges that entirely cover
the wooden core into which the spokes are driven? Were the hubs held on
with big square blocks of wood as seen in one well known sculpture? Were
the axles steel or wood? What kind of bearing surface was used? Were they
greased or dry? We built eighteen wooden wheels, but later discovered that
they were quite different in design from the wheels and axles described by
the pioneers of 1855 to 1860.
In this paper we shall attempt to reconstruct the real pioneer
handcarts as they most likely were assembled. We will invite the reader to
view hand cart design through the eyes of a meticulous craftsman skilled
in both wheel construction (wheelwright) and wagon making (wainwright). In
addition this craftsman has a zealous interest in American history and
period authenticity. It is hoped that this will shed additional light on
the scholarly works of the historians and the interpretations of the
artists. It is also hoped that those who enthusiastically collect
artifacts, as we do, will find this paper useful in evaluating their
findings. Most important of all we hope many people will use these plans
as working drawings to construct time period authentic carts. In this way
the hearts of the children can be turned to their fathers that future
generations may be blessed.
The following drawings and sketches have been constructed from about
ten different references coming from the pioneer time period. Consider for
example the following excerpt out of a letter from Brigham Young during
September of 1855: 
"I will give you my plan of building the carts take Iron Wood or Hard
Hack for Hubs, turn them out about six inches long and five or six inches
in the diameter, the axle trees should be of good hickory about 2 inches
in diameter at the shoulder, and one and a quarter at the point, and
about, four and a half, feet from point-to point, the hubs should be lined
for boxes, with sole leather. The spokes should be turned or shaved out of
hickory, long enough so as to make the wheel about four and a half, or
five feet high. The spokes should be set bracing in the hub and seasoned.
It will draw much easier built high than low so that the shafts may draw
level; split out rims from good hickory, something like spinning wheel
rims only thicker, and fasten them through and through with green hide and
cover them also with the same when it can be done, the beds should be made
out of one half inch stuff in order to be light, as possible. You will not
need a particle of Iron and the brethren can come along with no trouble or
perplexity of teams and save a great deal of expense. " (Original letter
in LDS Church Archives) of wood and as orderly as may be in the following
manner-prior to the time of starting some mechanics accustomed to working
in wood with a turning lathe, making wheels, etc., should be picked up to
go to the outfitting point and gather good timber for the purpose, and
commence turning hubs, spokes, etc., and making the carts..." (Original
letter in LDS Archives) 
Let us examine one more description by a veteran of the handcart
emigration, J. Rogerson:
"The open handcart was made of Iowa hickory or oak, the shafts and side
pieces of the same material, but the axles generally of hickory. In length
the side pieces and shafts were about six or seven feet, with three or
four binding cross bars from the back part to the fore part of the body of
the cart; then two or three feet space from the latter bar to the front
bar...
"The carts were the usual width of the wide track wagon. Across the
bars of the bed of the cart we generally sewed a strip of bed ticking or a
counterpane [bed sheet]. On this wooden cart of a thimbleless axle, with
about a 2 1/2 inch shoulder and one inch point, were often loaded 400 or
500 pounds of flour, bedding, extra clothing, cooking utensils and a tent.
How the flimsy Yankee hickory structure held up the load for hundreds of
miles has been a wonder to us since then." Josiah Rogerson, in the Salt
Lake Tribune, Jan. 4, 1914 as quoted in Handcarts to Zion p. 54 - 55.
Attempting to follow the instructions from their leaders, during the
first year, one-thousand-eight-hundred-and-ninety-one pioneers began
moving west. They pushed and pulled their supplies in 430 handcarts and 27
wagons. The first company to leave in 1856, departed from Iowa City on
June 9. The last company to move west by handcart in 1856, left Iowa City
on July 28. This group that departed so late in the season was known as
the Martin Company. In October they faced terrible trials when early
winter storms caught them still hundreds of miles from their
destination. 
As the companies pushed their carts across Iowa, grit began to grind
away the unprotected wooden spindles of the axles. Fortunately for the
first company, Joseph Argyle, a tinner by trade, was able to wrap every
spindle with tin. Other companies were not so fortunate. J. H. Latey wrote
from Florence on August 14 and reported the arrival of the fourth company
(Willie s Company). He wrote, "The companies stay here longer than they
otherwise would in consequence of their carts being unfit for their
journey across the Plains; some requiring new axles, and the whole of them
having to have a piece of iron screwed on to prevent the wheel from
wearing away the wood." Millennial Star, XVIII, p. 638, as reported in
Handcarts to Zion, p. 94.
Remember now, that during this first year of handcart t transportation
430 carts were launched. During the next four years a total of only 223
more carts crossed the 1300 mile wilderness to Utah. The point is that 2/3
of the carts left during 1856. These first 430 carts were constructed by
craftsmen following the same guide-lines. John Chislett, an eye-witness
and participant in the Fourth Company, described some of their
transportation woes:
"We started from Florence about the 18th of August, and traveled in the
same way as through Iowa, except that our carts were more heavily laden,
as our teams could not haul sufficient flour to last us to Utah; it was
therefore decided to put one sack (ninety-eight pounds) on each cart in
additional to the regular baggage... 
"The only drawbacks to this part of our journey were the constant
breaking down of carts and the delays caused by repairing them. The axles
and boxes being of wood, and being ground out by the dust that found its
way there in spite of our efforts to keep it out, together with the extra
weight put on the carts, had the effect of breaking the axles at the
shoulder. All kinds of expedients were resorted to as remedies for the
growing evil, but with variable success. Some wrapped their axles with
leather obtained from bootlegs; others with tin, obtained by sacrificing
tin-plates, kettles, or buckets from their mess outfit. Besides these
inconveniences, there was felt a great lack of a proper lubricator. Of
anything suitable for this purpose we had none at all. The poor folks had
to use their bacon (already totally insufficient for their wants) to
grease their axles, and some even used their soap, of which they had very
little, to make their carts trundle somewhat easier. In about twenty days,
however, the flour being consumed, breakdowns became less frequent, and we
jogged along finely..." Chislett in Stenhouse, op. cit., 317-318,
Handcarts to Zion, p. 99-100.
What are the "boxes" of wood being ground out by the dust? This point
of clarification may help the reader. In pioneer wheel terminology, the
"box" is the smooth, round, tapered hole inside the hub that slips over
the spindle on the end of the axle. It was best in pioneer days to press a
tapered cast iron sleeve into the box to provide a more durable surface.
The metal insert is called the "boxing". Brigham Young instructed them to"
"line the inside of the hub with good sole leather for boxes. 
What is a "thimbleless axle"? The spindle is the bearing surface on the
end of the axle. It was best to cover the wood with a protective thimble
made of metal. This thimble is more often called the skein. In
desperation, and far from their point of departure, the handcart service
technicians protected the wooden spindles with metal from their
tin-plates, kettles and buckets or screwed on a piece of iron to prevent
the wheel from wearing away the wooden spindle. The spindle needs the most
protection on the bottom side because the load is always pressing the
spindle DOWN on the inside of the rotating hub. We have seen several iron
skeins on wagons, where the bottom of the skein is completely worn through
to the wood, while the top of the skein is still very thick and usable. An
excellent example of protecting the wooden spindle with a strap of iron on
the bottom can be seen in the Daughters of the Utah Pioneers Museum in
Pleasant Grove, Utah. Very simply, a piece of flat iron strap is mortised
into the bottom of the wooden axle. The iron must be forged, fit, and
filed to blend with the smooth circular spindle surface.
PART II: THE NEW AND IMPROVED CART OF 1857Following the great
effort of 1856 to help poor travelers to emigrate to Utah, a dramatic and
successful demonstration of the efficiency of handcart travel was needed
to restore the humble vehicle to favor. In the fall of 1856 the First
Presidency suggested that elders being sent on missions from Utah take
handcarts and cross the plains on foot. On December 10, 1856, a message
from the First Presidency was printed in the Deseret News. Regarding
handcart design they counseled: EMIGRANTS MUST BE PROVIDED WITH STRONGER
HANDCARTS. By spring the travel plan for departing elders was adopted and
on April 23, 1857, about seventy missionaries set out from Salt Lake City
in a handcart train with no support wagon. So far, we have found nothing
to verify the design improvements utilized in the missionary carts.
However, when they arrived in Florence, a representative from the
newspaper interviewed them and reported:
"The bodies of the carts were tastefully painted to suit the fancy of
the owners, and with such inscriptions on the sides as: 'Truth will
Prevail,'Zions Express,' 'Blessings follow Sacrifice,' 'Merry Mormons.'
They had canvas covers, and were better looking vehicles in every respect
than we had expected to see. From the accounts published in the leading
journals throughout the country, the general impression on the mind of the
public is that the handcart is the slowest and most laborious mode of
conveyance that can be used. From the report of this party and of others,
we are inclined to think it exactly the reverse. This party was but
nineteen days in coming from Fort Laramie, a distance of 520 miles- an
average of over 27 miles per day- some days they made 35 miles. This is
certainly not slow traveling... 
"The members of the party were Elders going on missions to different
parts of the world. They were feeling fine after their trip and expressed
themselves to be on hand for a foot race or wrestling match with any one
in Florence who might feel inclined to indulge. The party sold their
wagons [carts] at auction at prices ranging from eight to twelve dollars.
They cost forty dollars to build, in the [Salt Lake] Valley." Florence
Courier, reproduced in the Journal History, as reported in Handcarts to
Zion, p. 147-8. With the light of hind sight, the missionary carts must
have been a great improvement over the economy models of 1856. Note that
they were tastefully painted, had canvas tops, averaged over 27 miles per
day, and sold used for eight to twelve dollars. In planning for carts in
1856 it was estimated that they could be built for "only four or five
dollars." The light of reason seems to indicate that these were not the
frail carts of 1856 with their small hubs and thimbleless axles. So, what
improvements did the craftsmen implement?
After an eyewitness account in Salt Lake City of arriving handcarts and
the people that pulled them; after interviewing the new emigrants and
studying the mechanical deficiencies of the economy carts; the First
Presidency compiled the data for the recommended changes. Their message of
encouragement to future handcart travelers was published in the Deseret
News of December 10, 1856 and in the Millennial Star of April 18, 1857.
The message included these construction guidelines:
"They must be provided with stronger hand-carts... The hub or nave of
the cart wheels should be eight inches long and seven inches through the
centre. The boxes at the shoulder should be two-and-a-quarter inches, and
the point boxes one-and-a-half inches in diameter.
"If it should be considered best to have cast iron arms, they should be
one-and-a-quarter inches thick at the shoulder and three-quarters inch at
the point. The wooden axles should have iron or steel skeins, and the
wheels should be bound with band iron one-quarter or three-eights of an
inch in thickness, with a dish of two inches, and track four feet apart.
The timber must be of the best quality for toughness, and be well
seasoned. In other respects they may be constructed as heretofore."
If these guidelines were followed, then the new carts had larger hubs,
metal skeins with a plumb spoke taper for a two inch dish, a four foot
track and very dry wood. (This terminology should make more sense as the
reader studies the drawings.)
On June 6, 1860, Henry J. Harrison wrote in his diary a description of
his cart. His cargo box was four feet long and three feet wide, the wheels
four feet high, and the bed nine inches deep. He was instructed to grease
the wheels three times each week. His four foot wheels were smaller than
the recommended wheels of 54 to 60 inches. The craftsmen were instructed
to build the wheels tall so the carts would be easier to pull. The axle
was to be at a height which would put the shafts level when the cart was
being pulled by a man. This requires a 54 to 60 inch wheel for the men of
that time period. Perhaps Henry Harrison was a few inches shorter than
average.
Daniel Robinson was captain of the Ninth Handcart Company. They were
organized with 233 persons, 43 handcarts, six wagons and 38 oxen. During
June of 1860 he wrote: "When we were called to team up, six teams were put
to lead, the carts were in the rear. The people pushed the carts. The
boxes and carts were painted beautifully, and had bows over the top. These
bows were covered with heavy canvas. The tongues of the carts had a
crosspiece 2 1/2 feet long fastened to the end. Against this crosspiece
two persons would lean their weight, this they called pushing instead of
pulling. It was very common to see young girls between the ages of 16 and
20 with a harness on their shoulders in the shape of a halter, a small
chain fastened to that, and then fastened to the cart. There were some
four or five to a cart some pushing, some pulling all day long through the
hot, dry sand, with hardly enough to eat to keep life in their bodies."
Daniel Robinson Account, in Carter, Treasures of Pioneer History, v, pp.
287-88, as quoted in Handcarts to Zion, p 181-82.
It appears that Captain Robinson is speaking in general terms about the
majority of the 43 carts in his company. Note that instead of shafts and a
crossbar, they used a tongue and a crosspiece with three people working up
front.
PART III: SUMMARY OF DATA
- WHEELS:
- 4 1/2 to 5 feet tall with 2 inches of dish
- RIMS:
- Bent like the rim of a spinning wheel but thicker. (The rim of
spinning wheels was bent out of one continuous, green white oak split
about 1/4 inch thick. It was tapered and pegged at the joint. See
Foxfire II, p. 194.) OR Saw rims 2 1/2 to 3 inches wide and 3/4 inch
thick, then bend circle from either one or two pieces. (Dry wood this
thick can be boiled or steamed and bent around a form.) Bore a round
hole to receive the spoke tenon. Round the inside corners to shed sand.
- TIRES:
- Raw hide or preferably iron from 3/16 to 3/8 inch thick. (Both
materials must be correctly installed with a very tight shrink fit to
make a strong wheel.)
- SPOKES:
- Hickory or white oak. The number of spokes and size of the spokes is
not given. Judging from the size of the hub and the loading of 400 to
500 pounds per cart, the small hubs would have used either 10 or 12
spokes measuring 1 3/8 inches at the hub. The larger hubs probably would
have used 12 spokes each, measuring 1 1/2 inches at the hub. Use
"Warner" style spokes, which have a square shoulder to seat firmly
against the web of the hub. To be shaved with a draw knife or turned on
lathe. Tenons of about 3/4 inch diameter cut with a tenon auger.
- HUBS:
- Turned round on a lathe. At first they tried 5 or 6 inches in
diameter and 6 inches long. Beginning in December of 1856 it was
recommended hubs be 7 inches in diameter and 8 inches long. (Before
driving the spokes, wrap the hub tightly with wet raw hide and let dry
thoroughly. Peg the ends of the wet rawhide in place. The mortises
should be staggered about 5/8 inch.)
- BOXINGS:
- The recommendation to use wooden boxes lined with leather was never
changed in any further message that we can find. "Many" of the hubs were
not lined with leather. The hub box was simply wood turning on the axle
spindle.
- AXLES:
- Hickory, 2 1/2 x 3 1/2 inches, from 54 to 70 inches long. (The
length of the axle is determined by the length of the hub, the track,
the cargo box size and clearances. Some axles were built for a 4 foot
track. Others were built to follow the track of a "wide track wagon." In
the mid eighteen hundreds, the track of a typical wagon was about 56 to
60 inches.)
- SPINDLES:
- From 2 1/4 inches at the shoulder and 1 1/4 inches at the point to 2
1/2 inches at the shoulder and 1 1/2 inches at the point. The improved
carts were supposed to use metal skeins. An iron strip inserted into the
axle would suffice. (Spindles are tapered in order that the vehicle can
go over uneven surfaces with the least possible binding or friction. The
"gather" is to keep the wheel running close to the shoulder. Gather
keeps the wheel from crowding the axle nut or linch pin. The taper of
the spindle or skein is important. To stand the wheels on a plumb spoke,
one must utilize a "plumb spoke taper." Too much taper raises the outer
end of the spindle higher than the shoulder with the tendency of the
wheel to work off. The spindle must be cut with the proper "dip" or
"draft" according to the dish and height of the wheel.)
- CARGO BOX:
- Depends on the axle length. On the short axle about 36 inches by 48
inches. On the axle set to the track of a wagon, a box of about 45
inches by 58 inches would be practical. The sides were either made of
thin boards about 3/8 thick or they could be made of slats. The sides
were 8 to 9 inches high. Six to seven foot long shafts along the sides.
The improved bottom was thin boards over two or three crossbars.
Literally boxes on wheels.
- CRAFTSMEN:
- "People skilled in lathe turning and wheel construction should
commence making carts."
- FAMILY CARTS:
- Covered with canvas over three hickory bows. Bow size about 1/2 x 2
x 11'. Stronger than the open carts. Some utilized a tongue with
crosspiece instead of shafts and crossbar.
- JOINERY:
- They were encouraged to use raw hide. The craftsmen were reminded
that "you will not need a particle of iron." Joints typical of the mid
eighteen hundreds can be seen on the drawings. No need to plane or
polish. May be left rough sawn or hewn with the exception of the
spindles and where the hands grip the shafts and crosspiece.
- PAINT
- Some of the later carts were colorfully painted including
inscriptions. The most common color for the undercarriage was "red lead"
which is a dull orange color. Cargo box and shafts were probably blue
with artistic designs of white blue and red lead common during that time
period. The art work looks very much like our modern "tole painting."
- TOOLS:
- Lathe, drawknife, shaving horse, mallet, auger, bits, chisels, frame
saw, bucksaw, froe, froe club, adz, knife, tenon auger, spoke pointer,
traveler, forge, anvil, striker (hammer), tire upsetter, caliper,
divider, hub boring machine.
- WOOD:
- Used whatever hardwood could be found. Most of it white oak and
hickory.
SUGGESTED MATERIALS LIST FOR THE OPEN HANDCART OF 18572 Shafts 1
1/2" x 2" x 7'
8 post 1 1/2" x 1 1/2" x 8"
2 crossbars 1 1/2" x 2
x 36"
2 crossbars 1 1/2" x 1 1/4" x 36 (floor lays on top of these)
floor 3/8" thick x 45 5/8" (random widths as needed)
2 top rails 1" x
1 1/2" x 48"
2 top rails 1" x 1 1/2" x 36"
1 axle 2 1/2" x 3 1/2"
x 60
2 naves from which to turn hubs 8" long x 7" diameter
24 1
1/2" spokes 30" long
2 rims for wheels 3/4" thick x 2 1/2" wide x 54
to 60 dia.
60" of 1/4" wooden dowels for pins
2 3/8" carriage
bolts or 1/2" dowels to secure shafts to axles raw hide as needed for
lashing
2 3/16" x 2 1/2" x 16' flat iron strap for tires
2 linch
pins 3/8" x 7/8" x 4"
2 side boards 3/8" x 5" about 42" long
2
side boards 3/8" x 5" about 30" long
1 flat iron strap 1/4" x 1 1/2" x
60" (mortise under axle)
1 front crossbar 1 1/2" x 1 1/2" x 36"
Source: Pioneer
Handcarts 1856 - 1860
© Steve Pratt
These materials have been created by
Steve Pratt. Copies of these materials may be reproduced for teacher and
classroom use. When distributing these materials, credit must be given to
Steve Pratt. These materials may not be published, in whole or part, or in
any other format, without the written permission of Mr. Pratt, Cove Fort,
Beaver, Utah 84713.
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